Data Communications & Computer Networks

UNIT - II

Bandwidth Utilization: Multiplexing and Spreading

• MULTIPLEXING
       Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic. We can accommodate this increase by continuing to add individual links each time a new channel is needed; or we can install higherbandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals. In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream (many-to one).At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines. In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels. There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelengthdivision multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.

  Frequency-Division Multiplexing
       Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FOM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
  Multiplexing Process
       Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies (/1,12, and h). The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
  Demultiplexing Process
       The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines. Figure 6.5 isa conceptual illustration of demultiplexing process..
  Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
       Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one. WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the frequencies are very high.
  Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
       Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a line Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link. Figure 6.12gives a conceptual view of TDM. Note that the same link is used as in FDM; here, however, the link is shown sectioned by time rather than by frequency. In the figure, portions of signals 1, 2, 3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.
  Time Slots and Frames
       In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. However, the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is Tin s, where n is the number of connections. In other words, a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster. Figure 6.13 shows an example of synchronous TDM where n is 3.
  Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
       In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be inefficient if some input lines have no data to send. In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send is it given a slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.
  Slot Size
       Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For example, it would be inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address is 3 bits. This would mean an overhead of 300 percent. In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a few bytes.
  No Synchronization Bit
       There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM, but this time it is at the frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so we do not need synchronization bits.
  Bandwidth
       In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of the link based on the statistics of the load for each channel. If on average only x percent of the input slots are filled, the capacity of the link reflects this. Of course, during peak times, some slots need to wait.
  SPREAD SPECTRUM
       Multiplexing combines signals from several sources to achieve bandwidth efficiency; the available bandwidth of a link is divided between the sources. In spread spectrum (88), we also combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our goals are somewhat different Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs and WANs). In these types of applications, we have some concerns that outweigh bandwidth efficiency. In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for communication. Stations must be able to share this medium without interception by an eavesdropper and without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder. To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they spread the original spectrum needed for each station. If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss' such that Bss » B. The expanded bandwidth allows the source to wrap its message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission. An analogy is the sending of a delicate, expensive gift. We can insert the gift in a special box to prevent it from being damaged during transportation, and we can use a superior delivery service to guarantee the safety of the package.
  Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
       The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency. Although the modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long run. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BpHSS »B.
  Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
       The direct sequence spread spectrum (nSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit with 11 bits using a spreading code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of 11 bits, called chips, where the chip rate is 11 times that of the data bit.
  Transmission Media
       Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical layer. You could say that transmission media belong to layer zero. A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission medium for two people having a dinner conversation is the air.
  

  
  

  The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane. In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another form. The use of long-distance communication using electric signals started with the invention of the telegraph by Morse in the 19th century. Communication by telegraph was slow and dependent on a metallic medium. Extending the range of the human voice became possible when the telephone was invented in 1869. Telephone communication at that time also needed a metallic medium to carry the electric signals that were the result of a conversion from the human voice.
  

  
  

  GUIDED MEDIA
       Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
  Twisted-Pair Cable
       A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk).
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  Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
       The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
  Categories
       The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven categories. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest. Each EIA category is suitable for specific uses.
  Connectors
       The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.
  Performance
       One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies.
  Applications
       Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office---commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twistedpair cables.
  Coaxial Cable
       Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit.
  

  
  

  Fiber-Optic Cable
       A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance.
  UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
       Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them. Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation. In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the greater the distance. In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
  Radio Waves
       Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion for classification. Radio waves, for the most part, are Omni directional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The Omni directional property has a disadvantage, too.
  

  
  

  The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for longdistance broadcasting such as AM radio. Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a building. The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the microwave band. When this band is divided into sub bands, the sub bands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital communications. Almost the entire band is regulated by authorities (e.g., the FCC in the United States). Using any part of the band requires permission from the authorities.
  Omni directional Antenna
       Radio waves use Omni directional antennas that send out signals in all directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several types of antennas.
  Applications
       The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
  Microwaves
       Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation.
       Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles does not allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication.
       Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
       The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider sub bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities
  Unidirectional Antenna
       Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications. A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus. The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a single-point receiver.
  Infrared
       Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
  Switching
       A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems The end systems (communicating devices) are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, and the switches are labeled I, II, III, IV, and V. Each switch is connected to multiple links.
  CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
       A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM. We have explicitly shown the multiplexing symbols to emphasize the division of the link into channels even though multiplexing can be implicitly included in the switch fabric. The end systems, such as computers or telephones, are directly connected to a switch. We have shown only two end systems for simplicity. When end system A needs to communicate with end system M, system A needs to request a connection to M that must be accepted by all switches as well as by M itself. This is called the setup phase; a circuit (channel) is reserved on each link, and the combination of circuits or channels defines the dedicated path. After the dedicated path made of connected circuits (channels) is established, data transfer can take place. After all data have been transferred, the circuits are tom down. We need to emphasize several points here:
  
  

  
  

       Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer. Before starting communication, the stations must make a reservation for the resources to be used during the communication. These resources, such as channels (bandwidth in FDM and time slots in TDM), switch buffers, switch processing time, and switch input/output ports, must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.
        Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized (physical layer transfer of the signal). The data are a continuous flow sent by the source station and received by the destination station, although there may be periods of silence.
        There is no addressing involved during data transfer. The switches route the data based on their occupied band (FDM) or time slot (TDM). Of course, there is end-to end addressing used during the setup phase.
  DATAGRAM NETWORKS
       In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Even if a packet is part of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer. We briefly discuss datagram networks here as a comparison with circuit-switched and virtual-circuit switched networks. The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks. The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep information about the connection state. There are no setup or teardown phases. Each packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.
  

  
  

  VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
       A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.
  1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data transfer phase.
  2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram network.
  3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be the next switch and the channel on which the packet is being canied), not end-to-end jurisdiction. The reader may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is no final destination address carried by a packet. The answer will be clear when we discuss virtualcircuit identifiers in the next section.
  4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the connection.
  5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuitswitched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer. But this may change in the future.
  STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH
       Structure of Circuit Switches
  Circuit switching today can use either of two technologies: the space-division switch or the timedivision switch.
  Space-Division Switch
       In space-division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated from one another spatially. This technology was originally designed for use in analog networks but is used currently in both analog and digital networks. It has evolved through a long history of many designs.
       Crossbar Switch A crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, using electronic micro switches (transistors) at each cross point. The major limitation of this design is the number of cross points required. To connect n inputs tom outputs using a crossbar switch requires n x m cross points. For example, to connect1000 inputs to 1000 outputs requires a switch with 1,000,000 cross points. A crossbar switch this number of cross points is impractical. Such a switch is also inefficient because statistics show that, in practice, fewer than 25 percent of the cross points are in use at any given time.
       Multistage Switch The solution to the limitations of the crossbar switch is the multistage switch, which combines crossbar switches in several (normally three)stages, as shown in Figure 8.18. In a single crossbar switch, only one row or column(one path) is active for any connection. So we need N x N cross points. If we can allow multiple paths inside the switch, we can decrease the number of cross points. Each cross point in the middle stage can be accessed by multiple cross points in the first or third stage.
  Using Telephone and Cable Networks for Data Transmission
       Telephone networks were originally created to provide voice communication. The need to communicate digital data resulted in the invention of the dial-up modem. With the advent of the Internet came the need for high-speed downloading and uploading; the modem was just too slow. The telephone companies added a new technology, the digital subscriber line (DSL). Although dial-up modems still exist in many places all over the world, DSL provides much faster access to the Internet through the telephone network. first discuss the basic structure of the telephone network. We then see how dial-up modems and DSL technology use these networks to access the Internet. Cable networks were originally created to provide access to TV programs for those subscribers who had no reception because of natural obstructions such as mountains. Later the cable network became popular with people who just wanted a better signal. In addition, cable networks enabled access to remote broadcasting stations via microwave connections. Cable TV also found a good market in Internet access provision using some of the channels originally designed for video. After discussing the basic structure of cable networks, we discuss how cable modems can provide a high-speed connection to the Internet.
  TELEPHONE NETWORK
       Telephone networks use circuit switching. The telephone network had its beginnings in the late 1800s. The entire network, which is referred to as the plain old telephone system (POTS), was originally an analog system using analog signals to transmit voice. With the advent of the computer era, the network, in the 1980s, began to carry data in addition to voice.